Programmable crossbar signal processor with input/output tip interconnection

ABSTRACT

A device including a nanowire crossbar array including a programmable material layer, at least one of input or output circuitry, and at least one array of input or output tips to provide an electrical connection between the nanowire crossbar array and the input or output circuitry.

This application is a Continuation of the U.S. patent application Ser.No. 11/395,237, filed Apr. 3, 2006 now U.S. Pat. No. 7,302,513.

CROSS-REFERENCE TO RELATED APPLICATIONS

This application is related to the following co-pending patentapplication, which is incorporated by reference in its entirety:

-   U.S. application Ser. No. 11/395,232, entitled “Crossbar Arithmetic    Processor,” filed Apr. 3, 2006.

FIELD OF THE INVENTION

The present invention pertains to signal processing as used in a varietyof applications including control systems, communication systems, andpattern recognition systems. Some aspects of the present invention alsorelate to molecular electronics and interfaces between solid stateelectronics and molecular electronics.

BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION

Crossbar interconnect technology has been developed in recent years witha primary focus in applications in information storage and retrieval. Acrossbar array basically comprises a first set of conductive parallelwires and a second set of conductive parallel wires formed so as tointersect the first set of conductive wires. The intersections betweenthe two sets of wires are separated by a thin film material or molecularcomponent. A property of the material, such as the material'sresistance, may be altered by controlling the voltages applied betweenindividual wires from the first and second set of wires. Alteration ofthe materials resistance at an intersection may be performed so as toachieve a high resistance or low resistance state and thus store digitaldata. It is noted that crossbar arrays are occasionally referred to ascross point or crosswire arrays.

Nagasubramanian et al. U.S. Pat. No. 5,272,359 discloses such a crossbararray employing an organic conducting polymer as the material.Resistance variation from 10¹² ohms to 10⁷ ohms is reported to beachieved by applying a 10V pulse with a 100 ms duration. Nagasubramanianet al. discusses the uses of the crossbar array as forming a memorymatrix for an artificial neural net.

Other materials useful for electrically programmable resistance arethose with a perovskite structure such as magnetoresistive materials(U.S. Pat. Nos. 6,531,371 and 6,693,821), a variety of organicsemiconductors (U.S. Pat. Nos. 6,746,971 and 6,960,783), andsilver-selenide/chalcogenide laminate films (U.S. Pat. No. 6,867,996).

Kuekes et al. U.S. Pat. No. 6,128,214 uses crossbars applicable atnanometer scales by employing molecular components as a bridgingcomponent between the wires. Such nanoscale crossbars have beendisclosed as useful tools in molecular electronics capable of performinga variety of tasks including signal routing, multiplexing, andperforming simple logic functions in U.S. Pat. Nos. 6,256,767,6,314,019, 6,518,156, 6,586,965, 6,812,117, 6,854,092, 6,858,162,6,870,394, 6,880,146, 6,898,098, 6,900,479, 6,919,740, 6,963,077, andU.S. Patent Application 2005/0258872. Molecular crossbar arrays used inneural networks is disclosed in U.S. Patent Application 2004/0150010.Manufacturing of molecular crossbar arrays is taught in U.S. Pat. Nos.6,248,674, 6,432,740, 6,835,575, 6,846,682, and 6,998,333.

Examples of non-patent literature concerned with molecular crossbararrays include Ziegler et al. “A Case for CMOS/nano Co-design,” Lee etal. “CMOL Crossnets as Pattern Classifiers,” and Das et al.“Architectures and Simulations for Nanoprocessor Systems Integrated Onthe Molecular Scale.” Reinhold Koch provides a discussion ofprogrammable crossbar arrays formed from ferroelectric material inScientific American Vol. 293, No. 2 pgs. 56-63.

While there are numerous teachings of using programmable crossbar arraysin memory devices and to achieve simple signal routing and logicfunctions, there has been no significant development in the use ofprogrammable crossbar arrays in processing signals. Enhanced processingspeed and adaptability may be attained by employing crossbar arrays inwaveform generation, signal filtering, broadband communication, andpattern recognition applications.

SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION

As opposed to storing data, attempting to recreate the basic logicfunctions used in digital logic, or create a neural net, the presentinvention proposes an implementation of a crossbar array as a componentof a system which, given a first set of analog or digital input signals,can transform the signals into a second set of analog or digital outputsignals based on preprogrammed values stored in the crossbar array.Employing particular modifications of the crossbar array structureallows for preprogrammed impedance values (Zij) to uniquely determinetransfer function coefficients (Tij) for the crossbar and, when combinedwith specific input and output circuitry, creates a physical devicecapable of performing a linear transformation of the input signals intooutput signals. This introduces a new level of parallel processing andadaptability to signal processing applicable to wave functiongeneration, control systems, signal filtering, communications, andpattern recognition.

BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS

FIG. 1 illustrates a basic circuit configuration for one embodiment ofthe crossbar signal processing unit of the present invention.

FIG. 2 illustrates an example of an input selector circuit.

FIG. 3 illustrates an example of an output selector circuit.

FIG. 4 a and FIG. 4 b illustrate an example of a programming input andoutput circuit.

FIG. 5 illustrates data from a particular block of a data register.

FIG. 6 illustrates programming waveforms used to program a crossbararray.

FIGS. 7 a-7 c illustrates basic circuit configurations for inputcircuits.

FIG. 7 d illustrates a basic circuit configuration for an outputcircuit.

FIG. 8 a illustrates a schematic circuit for a 3×3 crossbar array.

FIG. 8 b illustrates a schematic circuit for a 3×3 crossbar arraylacking a rectification layer.

FIG. 8 c illustrates a schematic circuit for a 3×3 crossbar arrayincluding a rectification layer.

FIG. 8 d illustrates a cross-section of a crossbar array including arectification layer.

FIG. 9 illustrates the complete behavior of the crossbar array incombination with the input and output circuits.

FIGS. 10 a and 10 b illustrate waveforms obtainable when the crossbarprocessor is used as a waveform generator.

FIG. 11 a illustrates a first circuit configuration for a reprogrammablecrossbar signal processing unit.

FIG. 11 b illustrates a cross-section of the reprogrammable crossbararray of FIG. 11 a.

FIG. 12 a illustrates a second circuit configuration for areprogrammable crossbar signal processing unit.

FIG. 12 b illustrates a cross-section of the reprogrammable crossbararray of FIG. 12 a.

FIGS. 13 a and 13 b illustrates current flows generated by inputvoltages applied to a reprogrammable crossbar array.

FIG. 13 c illustrates a schematic representation of a circuit formed bythe reprogrammable crossbar processor.

FIGS. 14-16 illustrates modulation waveforms produced using the crossbararray processor.

FIGS. 17 and 18 illustrates implementations of the reprogrammablecrossbar processor of FIGS. 11 a and 11 b in signal modulation.

FIG. 19 illustrates an implementation of the reprogrammable crossbarprocessor of FIGS. 12 a and 12 b in signal modulation.

FIG. 20 illustrates inputting of bit data block Aij and generation ofcorresponding bit data blocks !Aij, Aji, and !Aji.

FIG. 21 illustrates inputting of bit data block Bij and generation ofcorresponding bit data blocks !Bij, Bji, and !Bji.

FIGS. 22 a-22 e illustrate comparison between the bit data blocks Aij,!Aij, Aji, !Aji and bit data blocks Bij, !Bij, Bji, !Bji using acrossbar processor.

FIGS. 23 a-23 e illustrate a technique of pattern tracking using acrossbar processor.

FIG. 24 illustrates a technique of pattern matching using a crossbarprocessor.

FIGS. 25 a-25 b illustrate using scanning probe tips connected toindependently movable cantilevers in addressing crossbar intersectionpoints within a crossbar array.

FIGS. 26 a-26 b illustrate using scanning probe tips connected to acommon support in addressing crossbar intersection points within acrossbar array.

FIGS. 27 a-27 b illustrate a modification of the crossbar arraystructure.

DETAILED DESCRIPTION

I. Basic Outline of Crossbar Signal Processor.

FIG. 1 shows a basic circuit configuration for one embodiment of thesignal processing unit of the present invention. The programmablecrossbar array 110 comprises a first set of conductive parallel wiresand a second set of conductive parallel wires formed substantiallyperpendicular to the first set of conductive wires. The intersectionsbetween the two sets of wires are separated by a thin film material ormolecular component. A property of the material, such as the material'sresistance, may be altered by controlling the voltages applied betweenindividual wires from the first and second set of wires. The specificprogrammable material or molecular component utilized may be any one ofthe materials noted in the prior art references cited in the Backgroundof the Invention or any other known or future developed material ormolecular component having an intrinsic impedance-related property suchas resistivity, permeability, permittivity, or tunneling probability,that is alterable by an application of a voltage or current above aparticular threshold.

As shown in FIG. 1, 16 input lines and 16 output lines are formed toconnect the crossbar array 110 to external circuitry. However, dependingon the desired application, more or less input and/or output lines maybe provided. For example, for a multiplexing operation used in acommunications application, more input lines would typically be providedthan output lines. If a demultiplexing operation is desired more outputlines may be necessary than input lines.

Programming circuits 101 a and 101 b are provided to set up the initialconditions for the crossbar array 110. For example, if the programmablematerial used is one in which the resistance is altered when a voltagegreater than a particular threshold is applied, then circuits 101 a and101 b may be used to set the resistance level at each point ofintersection of the crossbars. Further details of one particular circuitconfiguration for the programming circuits may be found in thedescription of FIG. 4.

Signal input circuit 102 a and output circuit 102 b are provided toprovide a signal input in the form of a set of analog or digitalwaveforms into and out of the crossbar array. Further details ofparticular circuit configurations for the input and output circuits 102a, 102 b may be found in the description of FIG. 7 a-7 c.

Input and output selection circuits 103 a and 103 b are provided toselectively connect either the programming circuits 101 a, 101 b or thesignal input/output circuits 102 a, 102 b to the crossbar array 110.

The intended result of this circuit design is to produce a set ofoutputs V_(out)(j)(1≦j≦16) from a set of inputs V_(in)(i)(1≦i≦16) suchthat V_(out)(j)=ΣT(i,j)V_(in)(i) where the sum is over all i from 1 to16. The programming circuits 101 a, 101 b determine the 256 (16×16)values of T(i,j) by appropriately setting the resistance values of thecrossbar array 110. The input circuit 102 a is the source of the signalsV_(in)(i) while output circuit 102 b transfers the output signalsV_(out)(j) to a next circuit stage or to final load elements desired tobe driven. This transformation is noted to be identical to a vectortransformation by matrix multiplication. While matrix multiplication iscommonplace in mathematics and software processes it may take severalprocess steps for an Arithmetic Logic Unit of a conventionalmicroprocessor to perform such an operation. However, given a programmedcrossbar array this operation may be performed in a single step savingsignificant process time.

II. Input/Output Selector Circuits

FIG. 2 provides one possible example of an input selector circuit 103 a.Control signal selin, generated on the basis of a controller circuit, isused to determine whether the signals Vprogin(i) or the signalsVsigin(i) are to be transferred to the crossbar array as Vinput(i).Circuit elements 201 a represent three-state buffer gates with drivingvoltages tuned to the magnitude of the respective Vsigin signals.Circuit elements 201 b represent three-state buffer gates with invertedcontrol inputs tuned to the drive voltage of the respective Vproginsignals. When control input selin is at a logical LOW value a highimpedance state exists in circuit elements 201 a while circuit elements201 b are in a transmission state. In this case the Vprogin(i) signalsare transmitted. When control input selin is at a logical HIGH value atransmission state exists in circuit elements 201 a while circuitelements 201 b are in a high impedance state. In this case the Vsigin(i)signals are transmitted. The ideal cumulative output of the selectorcircuit may be expressed asVinput(i)=![selin]*Vprogin(i)+[selin]*Vsigin(i),   (Eq 1)wherein selin=logic 1 or logic 0, ! represents the logic NOToperation, * represents the logic AND operation, and + represents thelogic OR operation.

FIG. 3 shows an example of an output selector circuit with controlsignal selout determining the transmission of Voutput(j). In a similarfashion to the analysis of FIG. 2, an analysis of the circuit of FIG. 3,with reference 301 a referring to three-state buffer gate and 301 breferring to a three-state buffer gate with an inverted control input,results inVprogout(j)=![selout]*Voutput(j),   (Eq 2a)Vsigout(j)=[selout]*Voutput(j),   (Eq 2b)wherein selout=logic 1 or logic 0.

While the circuit configurations of FIG. 2 and FIG. 3 are examples ofcircuits that may achieve the desired functions (1), (2a), and (2b) anyother equivalent circuit performing identical functions may be used, ora general purpose microprocessor may be employed, to achieve the desiredoutput. Particularly in cases of specific applications involving highfrequency or high power signals, and depending on the type andproperties of the programmable material used in the crossbar array,different circuit components and configurations specifically designedfor those conditions may be desirable.

III. Programming Circuits

FIG. 4 a and FIG. 4 b show a possible configuration of the programminginput and output circuits 101 a and 101 b with control inputs Load1,Load2, Clk1, Clk2, and activ(1)-activ(16) produced from an externalcontrol unit. The desired function of input circuit 101 a is toselectively set the voltage magnitude and duration of programming pulsesto be applied to the crossbar array so that the crossbar array behavesas transfer function T(i,j). Data register 401 may be a ROM, PROM, orEEPROM in which various blocks of binary data corresponding to a varietyof different transfer functions T(i,j) desired to be programmed into thecrossbar array may be stored at various addresses or theROM/PROM/EEPROM. Taking the example of a 16×16 crossbar as shown in FIG.1, each data block may be 16 bits×16 bits in the case where theindividual resistance values of the crossbar are intended to beprogrammed with either a high or low resistance state. Taking theteachings of Nagasubramanian et al. U.S. Pat. No. 5,272,359 as anexample, the high state of 10¹² ohms and low state of 10⁷ ohms wasachieved by applying a 100 ms pulse. If, in addition to a high and lowresistance values, intermediate resistance values are desired to beprogrammed into the crossbar the duration of the pulse used may beadjusted to achieve such intermediate values. In the case where aconductive polymer is used as the resistive material of the crossbararray, control of the initial doping concentration may be used as ameans to regulate the amount of resistance variation with respect to theapplied voltage.

In order to achieve intermediate resistance states using stored datablocks larger blocks of binary data are necessary. For example, if oneof four possible resistance states were desired to be programmed atevery intersection of a 16×16 crossbar, this may be accomplished byproviding a data block of size 32 bits×16 bits since 2 bits may achieveone of four possible resistance states corresponding to 00, 01, 10, and11. This principle may be understood further by an explanation of thecircuitry of FIG. 4 a, the block data of FIG. 5, and the waveforms ofFIG. 6.

Data from a particular block of data register 401 is shown in FIG. 5.The first row of data in the block consists of a series of plural bits10, 00, 11, 11, etc. and is used to program the resistance values of thefirst row of the crossbar array. This data may be loaded intomultiplexers 402 via control signal Load1 which outputs one of 4 signalsbased on the binary input provided. If the input is 00, the output X isa LOW logic level 0 (such as 0V or −12V depending on the specific logicdevices used); if the input is 01, the output X is a first clock signalClk1 having a small duty cycle; if the input is 10, the output X is asecond clock signal Clk2 having a larger duty cycle; if the input is 11,the output X is a HIGH logic voltage 1 (such as 5 V, 12V, etc. the valuedepending on the specific logic devices used.) In summary,

$\begin{matrix}{{X = {{Logic}\; 0*{!{\lbrack A\rbrack*{!{\lbrack B\rbrack + {{Clk}\; 1*{!{\lbrack A\rbrack*\lbrack B\rbrack*{Clk}\; 2*\lbrack A\rbrack*{!{\lbrack B\rbrack + {{Logic}\; 1*\lbrack A\rbrack*\lbrack B\rbrack}}}}}}}}}}}},} & ( {{Eq}\mspace{14mu} 3} )\end{matrix}$wherein A and B are each either logic 0 or 1 and the clock signals Clk1,Clk2 have a high voltage corresponding to logic 1 and a low voltagecorresponding to logic 0.

Each of the outputs X are connected to a AND gate 403 with the otherinputs of the AND gates 403 being connected to control signal Load2 soas to regulate when the pulses X are transferred to drive circuitry 404.Drive circuitry 404 includes boosting/amplifying circuitry to transformthe logic voltages into drive voltages Vp capable of altering theimpedance of the programmable material in the crossbar array. The tablebelow indicates the values of a particular programming voltageVprogin(i) given Load2 and particular binary inputs AB (AB=XX referringto any possible binary input.)

TABLE 1 Load2 AB Vprogin(i) 0 XX GND 1 00 GND 1 01 VpClk1 1 10 VpClk2 111 Vp

The output programming circuit 101 b is shown in FIG. 4 b and includessimple transistor switches 405 by which individual rows of the crossbararrays desired to be grounded may be selected via input signalsactive(j).

Preferably signals Load1 and Load2 input to the programming circuit areclock signals with a frequency identical to Clk1 and Clk2. In this casethe clock frequency of Clk1, Clk2, Load1, and Load2 should becoordinated with the timing of active(j)=1. As each subsequent row ofthe crossbar array is desired to be programmed the active(j) value forthat particular row should be set to a HIGH logic value while all of theother active(j) values are set to zero so as to present a highresistance output state to the non-programmed rows. In this fashion all256 (16×16) of the addressable points in the crossbar array may beprogrammed with individual resistances in 16 process steps.

In the embodiment described above the programming voltage Vp is of amagnitude greater than the threshold voltage necessary to alter aproperty such as resistance of a programmable material used by thecrossbar array. While the circuit configurations of FIGS. 4 a and 4 bare examples of circuits that may achieve the desired functional outputsof TABLE 1, any other equivalent circuit performing an identicalfunction may be used or a general purpose microprocessor may be employedto achieve the desired output of TABLE 1. While the circuit of FIG. 4exhibits four control levels using two selection bits (00, 01, 10, 11)for the voltage duration, a larger number of impedance control levelsmay be attained by using a greater number of bits to select from alarger number of pulse durations and by using larger multiplexers (i.e.3 bit selection employing an 8 to 1 multiplexer, 4 bit selectionemploying a 16 to 1 multiplexer, etc.) While a plurality of bits may beused to achieve multiple possible resistance states it is noted thatthis is not a required feature of the present invention and 1 bitresistance programming (achieving only high or low resistance states)may be achieved by excluding the multiplexers 402 from the circuit ofFIG. 4 a. In addition, while the programming circuitry used is based onvoltage programming (i.e. changing the programmable materialscharacteristics by applying a constant amplitude voltage pulse) the useof current control circuitry to change the programmable materialscharacteristics by applying a constant current pulse may in some casesbe preferable, depending on the response characteristics of theparticular material used. In the programming input circuit, whilevarious pulse widths associated with different clock signals were usedto generate impedance changes, the same effect may be achievable viapulse number modulation wherein a different number of pulses ofidentical pulse width are applied depending on the desired level ofimpedance change in the programmable material.

IV. Signal Input/Output Circuits

FIG. 7 a and FIG. 7 b illustrates input signals that may be applied tothe crossbar array. The signals may be independent, as in FIG. 7 a, orgenerated from a common signal, as in FIG. 7 b, in which harmonics of asinusoidal wave are generated, or as in FIG. 7 c, in which variousdelays of a rectangular pulse are generated. FIG. 7 d illustrates outputcircuits comprising inverting op-amps. Signals activs(j) (j=1 . . . 16)provide for switching between a high and low impedance state. It isnoted that the magnitude of each of the input signals should be lessthan the voltage necessary to significantly change the resistance of theprogrammable material so as to assure linear behavior. Each of the inputsignals includes an input impedance Zin(i) and each of the outputop-amps include feedback impedance Zout(j). It is noted that if theinput and output circuits were directly connected the output/inputrelationship developed would be:Vout(1)=−[Zout(1)/Zin(1)]Vin(1),Vout(2)=−[Zout(2)/Zin(2)]Vin(2),Vout(3)=−[Zout(3)/Zin(3)]Vin(3), etc.   (Eq 4)

These transformations find various uses in signal processing asamplifiers, integrators, differentiators, filters, and various otherfunctions depending on the values of Zout(j) and Zin(i). As will be seenin the following sections using a programmable crossbar array as anintermediate transfer element between the input and output circuitsintroduces new adaptability and parallel processing capability to suchsignal processing circuitry.

V. Operation of Crossbar Array

FIG. 8 a illustrates a 3×3 crossbar array after it has been programmedwith a particular resistance pattern. In order to assess the transferfunction T(i,j) produced by this resistive network the principle ofsuperposition may be employed in which the effects from each input areindependently assessed and added together (this is of course under theassumption that the programmable material has a linear current vs.voltage relationship over the range of voltages that the inputs areapplied). Performing this computation yieldsT(1,1)=(R21∥R31)/(R21∥R31+R11)T(1,2)=(R22∥R32)/(R22∥R32+R12)T(1,3)=(R23∥R33)/(R23∥R33+R13)T(2,1)=(R11∥R31)/(R11∥R31+R21)T(2,2)=(R12∥R32)/(R12∥R32+R22)T(2,3)=(R13∥R33)/(R13∥R33+R23)T(3,1)=(R11∥R21)/(R11∥R21+R31)T(3,2)=(R12∥R22)/(R12∥R22+R32)T(3,3)=(R13∥R23)/(R13∥R23+R33)   (Eq 5)wherein R1∥R2=(R1×R2)/(R1+R2). This is unsatisfactory for the purposesof the present invention because there is not one to one correspondencebetween the Rij and T(i,j) values. However, by using a crossbar array inwhich a rectifying layer, such as a pn junction, is included, thetransfer function will more adequately reflect the independentprogramming of the resistance values of the crossbar array. FIG. 8 c andFIG. 8 d illustrates an example of such a crossbar array in whichreference 801 refers to the input wires to the crossbar, reference 802refers to the rectifying layer, reference 803 refers to a programmablematerial layer, and reference 804 refers to the output electrodes. Therectifying layer allows current flow only from the input wires to theoutput wires producing output currents Iout(j)=ΣVin(i)/Rij wherein thesummation is performed over all i (for the instant example i=1, 2, 3).Combining this result with the effects of the input and outputimpedances (Eq 4), and assuming the rectifying layer has a sufficientlylow relative value of resistance under the applied currents so as to beapproximated by a short when forward biased, the following transferfunction elements are calculatedT(1,1)=−Zout(1)/[Zin(1)+R11]T(1,2)=−Zout(2)/[Zin(1)+R12]T(1,3)=−Zout(3)/[Zin(1)+R13]T(2,1)=−Zout(1)/[Zin(2)+R21]T(2,2)=−Zout(2)/[Zin(2)+R22]T(2,3)=−Zout(3)/[Zin(2)+R23]T(3,1)=−Zout(1)/[Zin(3)+R31]T(3,2)=−Zout(2)/[Zin(3)+R32]T(3,3)=−Zout(3)/[Zin(3)+R33],   (Eq 6)This provides the necessary independent programming of the transferfunction based upon programming of the crossbar array resistances (i.e.each value of T(i,j) is uniquely associated with only one correspondingRij).

Using a crossbar array with intrinsic rectification as described aboveallows for direct programming of the transfer function characteristicsof the crossbar array.

It is noted that the above calculations assume that only the resistanceof the programmable material used in the crossbar array is adjustable.However, certain programmable materials may have other impedancecharacteristics such a permeability, permittivity, tunnelingprobability, or dimensional characteristics that may be adjusted by anapplied voltage or current source. For a higher degree of generality,the programmable materials linear transfer characteristics at theintersection between two wires in the crossbar array may be expressed asimpedance, Zij. Also the wires of the crossbar themselves introduce someparasitic line impedance Zp(i,j). For a crossbar array in which theintersection points between the crossing wires are uniformly spaced andthe wires are all formed of the same material with the same diameter,the parasitic line impedance may be calculated asZp(i,j)=[(N−i)+(M−j)]Zp(0)+Zp,res,   (Eq 7)where Zp(0) is the line impedance between two adjacent intersectionpoints, N is the total number of columns of wires, M is the total numberof rows of wires, and Zp,res represents residual parasitic impedanceresulting from connection wiring between the crossbar array and theinput and output circuits. For the example of a 3×3 crossbar array thismodifies the transfer function elements (6) to the following formT(1,1)=−Zout(1)/[Zin(1)+4Zp(0)+Zp,res+Z11]T(1,2)=−Zout(2)/[Zin(1)+3Zp(0)+Zp,res+Z12]T(1,3)=−Zout(3)/[Zin(1)+2Zp(0)+Zp,res+Z13]T(2,1)=−Zout(1)/[Zin(2)+3Zp(0)+Zp,res+Z21]T(2,2)=−Zout(2)/[Zin(2)+2Zp(0)+Zp,res+Z22]T(2,3)=−Zout(3)/[Zin(2)+Zp(0)+Zp,res+Z23]T(3,1)=−Zout(1)/[Zin(3)+2Zp(0)+Zp,res+Z31]T(3,2)=−Zout(2)/[Zin(3)+Zp(0)+Zp,res+Z32]T(3,3)=−Zout(3)/[Zin(3)+Zp,res+Z33]  (Eq 8)

The parasitic resistances may be small enough to be ignored when thewiring of the crossbar includes high conductivity material with asufficiently large cross sectional area. However, this may not be apractical approximation in the case of nanowire crossbar arrays in whichthe parasitic resistance may become significant in comparison to theimpedances of the programmable material. In this case in order tominimize the variation generated by different parasitic resistancevalues the basic line impedance Zp(0) may be determined and the inputimpedances Zin set to Zin(1)=Zin′(1)+Zp(0), Zin(2)=Zin′(2)+2 Zp(0), andZin(3)=Zin′(3)+3 Zp(0). This simplifies the crossbar transform T(i,j) to

$\begin{matrix}{\begin{matrix}{{T( {1,1} )} = {{- {{Zout}(1)}}/\lbrack {{{{Zin}^{\prime}(1)} + {5{{Zp}(0)}} + {Zp}},{{res} + {Z\; 11}}} \rbrack}} \\{= {{- {{Zout}(1)}}/\lbrack {{{Zin}^{\prime}(1)} + {Z\; 11} + {{Zc}\; 1}} \rbrack}}\end{matrix}\begin{matrix}{{T( {1,2} )} = {{- {{Zout}(2)}}/\lbrack {{{{Zin}^{\prime}(1)} + {4{{Zp}(0)}} + {Zp}},{{res} + {Z\; 12}}} \rbrack}} \\{= {{- {{Zout}(2)}}/\lbrack {{{Zin}^{\prime}(2)} + {Z\; 12} + {{Zc}\; 2}} \rbrack}}\end{matrix}\begin{matrix}{{T( {1,3} )} = {{- {{Zout}(3)}}/\lbrack {{{{Zin}^{\prime}(1)} + {3{{Zp}(0)}} + {Zp}},{{res} + {Z\; 13}}} \rbrack}} \\{= {{- {{Zout}(3)}}/\lbrack {{{Zin}^{\prime}(1)} + {Z\; 13} + {{Zc}\; 3}} \rbrack}}\end{matrix}\begin{matrix}{{T( {2,1} )} = {{- {{Zout}(1)}}/\lbrack {{{{Zin}^{\prime}(2)} + {5{{Zp}(0)}} + {Zp}},{{res} + {Z\; 21}}} \rbrack}} \\{= {{- {{Zout}(1)}}/\lbrack {{{Zin}^{\prime}(2)} + {Z\; 21} + {{Zc}\; 1}} \rbrack}}\end{matrix}\begin{matrix}{{T( {2,2} )} = {{- {{Zout}(2)}}/\lbrack {{{{Zin}^{\prime}(2)} + {4{{Zp}(0)}} + {Zp}},{{res} + {Z\; 22}}} \rbrack}} \\{= {{- {{Zout}(2)}}/\lbrack {{{Zin}^{\prime}(2)} + {Z\; 22} + {{Zc}\; 2}} \rbrack}}\end{matrix}\begin{matrix}{{T( {2,3} )} = {{- {{Zout}(3)}}/\lbrack {{{{Zin}^{\prime}(2)} + {3{{Zp}(0)}} + {Zp}},{{res} + {Z\; 23}}} \rbrack}} \\{= {{- {{Zout}(3)}}/\lbrack {{{Zin}^{\prime}(2)} + {Z\; 23} + {{Zc}\; 3}} \rbrack}}\end{matrix}\begin{matrix}{{T( {3,1} )} = {{- {{Zout}(1)}}/\lbrack {{{{Zin}^{\prime}(3)} + {5{{Zp}(0)}} + {Zp}},{{res} + {Z\; 31}}} \rbrack}} \\{= {{- {{Zout}(1)}}/\lbrack {{{Zin}^{\prime}(3)} + {Z\; 31} + {{Zc}\; 1}} \rbrack}}\end{matrix}\begin{matrix}{{T( {3,2} )} = {{- {{Zout}(2)}}/\lbrack {{{{Zin}^{\prime}(3)} + {4{{Zp}(0)}} + {Zp}},{{res} + {Z\; 32}}} \rbrack}} \\{= {{- {{Zout}(2)}}/\lbrack {{{Zin}^{\prime}(3)} + {Z\; 32} + {{Zc}\; 2}} \rbrack}}\end{matrix}\begin{matrix}{{T( {3,3} )} = {{- {{Zout}(3)}}/\lbrack {{{{Zin}^{\prime}(3)} + {3{{Zp}(0)}} + {Zp}},{{res} + {Z\; 33}}} \rbrack}} \\{= {{- {{Zout}(3)}}/\lbrack {{{Zin}^{\prime}(3)} + {Z\; 33} + {{Zc}\; 3}} \rbrack}}\end{matrix}} & ( {{Eq}\mspace{14mu} 9} )\end{matrix}$where Zc1=5Zp(0)+Zp,res, Zc2=4Zp(0)+Zp,res, and Zc3=3Zp(0)+Zp,res.

In general for an arbitrarily large crossbar arrayT(i,j)=−Zout(j)/[Zin′(i)+Zij+Zcj]  (Eq 10)AndVout(j)=ΣT(i,j)×Vin(i), the summation performed for all i.   (Eq 11)

FIG. 9 illustrates the overall operational behavior of the programmedcrossbar array combined with the input and output circuitry of FIG. 1.The combination of the circuit elements 101 a, 101 b, 102 a, 102 b, 103a, 103 b, and 110 may be formed as a single application specificintegrated circuit (ASIC) or as plural circuit elements connectedtogether by external wiring. In either case the overall circuitryconfiguration is referenced as Crossbar Signal Processor 901 with theset of input signals Vin(i) transformed into a set of output signalswhose values depend on the programming state of the crossbar array.

VI. Applications of Crossbar Signal Processor in Waveform Generation,Control Systems, and Signal Filtering.

One of the more obvious applications of the above described signalprocessing crossbar array is in waveform generation. The mathematicaltechniques of Fourier analysis shows that periodic signals may bedecomposed into linear combinations of elementary sine and/or cosinefunctions and their harmonics (i.e. frequency multiples). Using thesignal input of FIG. 7 b, setting Zin′(1), Zin′(2), . . . , Zout(1),Zout(2), etc. all to a common resistance value R, and assuming thecumulative parasitic resistances Zcj are relatively small compared to R,the crossbar transform produces:Vout(j)=−Σ1/(1+Zij/R) [A cos (iωt+φ)+B], the summation performed for1≦i≦16.   (Eq 12)It is noted that B is necessary as a sufficient dc bias (at least A/2)to assure that the signals pass through the rectification layer (802,FIG. 8 d) without being partially rectified. However, in certain caseswhere clipped or rectified output waveforms are desired B may be set toa value less than A/2. Depending on the desired application, signalsVout(j) may be further processed by means such as phase inverters,filters, etc. or any of the various other means known to one of ordinaryskill in the waveform shaping art to provide a desired output to targetloads.

While harmonic sinusoidal functions are one example of a set of basisfunctions that may be used to generate a plurality of output waveformsother orthogonal waveform basis may be used as known from themathematical discipline of orthogonal function theory. For exampleharmonics of a periodic rectangular wave may be used as a basis togenerate stepped waveforms that may be useful in motor control or otherapplications that require a plurality of different dc voltage levels tobe applied during a periodic interval.

In addition to harmonics of periodic functions, stepped delays may beused as the inputs Vin(i) as in FIG. 7 c in which the input is a pulsestarting at time ta and ending at time tb. Setting Zin′(1), Zin′(2), . .. , Zout(1), Zout(2), etc. all to a common resistance value R, andassuming the cumulative parasitic resistances Zcj are relatively smallcompared to R, the crossbar transform produces:Vout(j)=−Σ1/(1+Zij/R) [u(t−ta−iΔt)−u(t−tb−iΔt)], the summation performedfor 1≦i≦16.  (Eq 13)Where u(t) is 1 for t>0 and 0 otherwise and Δt is the basic unit of thetime delay.

FIG. 10 a displays an example of the operation of the crossbartransformation when the signal inputs are rectangular waves with variousperiods set to be multiples of a base period T. The crossbar transformis programmed such that Zij<<R for i,j=(1,1),(2,1),(3,1),(3,2); Zij=Rfor i,j=(1,2); and Zij>>R for all other (i,j). This particularprogramming of the crossbar array generates two outputs Vout1 and Vout2,as shown in FIG. 10 a.

FIG. 10 b displays an example of the operation of the crossbartransformation when the signal inputs are pulses with various degrees oftime delay applied. Under the same crossbar programming state as theprevious example the output waveforms Vout1 and Vout2 take the formsshown in FIG. 10 b.

As can be seen from the above examples a programmable crossbar array,such as that of the present invention, may be employed to provide asource of programmable waveforms or pulses based upon an input of basicwaveforms and the programmed state of the crossbar array. Such waveformsmaybe applicable to motor control systems, signal control systems, and avariety of other applications requiring versatility in the control ofthe types of waveforms required in a specified application.

For applications arising from control systems and signal filteringZin(i) and Zout(j) may be formed from a combination of resistive,capacitive, inductive or other impedance elements. Using the Laplacedomain representation impedances Zin(i) and Zout(j) may be of the formZin(i,s)=Rin(1+ain(i)s)/(1+bin(i)s) andZout(j,s)=Rout(1+aout(j)s)/(1+bout(j)s) where ain(i), bin(i), aout(j),bout(j), Rin, and Rout are constants determined by the type, value, andconfiguration of impedance elements used in Zin(i) and Zout(j). Usingthese impedance values in (11) produces:Vout(j,s)=−Σ[Rout(1+aout(j)s)(1+bin(i)s)]/[Rin(1+ain(i)s)(1+bout(j)s)+(Zij+Zcj)(1+bin(i)s)(1+bout(j)s)]×Vin(i,s),the summation performed for 1≦i≦16.   (Eq 14)

One particular implementation of (Eq 14) may be employed in which theinput voltages are connected to a common source Vin(s) and all bin(i),bout(j) are set to zero producing the outputs:Vout(j,s)=−Vin(s)(Rout/Rin)Σ[(1+aout(j)s)]/[(1+ain(i)s)+(Zij+Zcj)/Rin],the summation performed for 1≦i≦16.   (Eq 15)

Depending on the relative values of the parameters aout(j), ain(i), andZij, outputs of the formVout(j,s)=−Vin(s)(Rout/Rin)[A(s,Z11)+B(s,Z21)+C(s,Z31)+ . . . ]  (Eq 16)may be produced, where A(s,Z11), B(s,Z21), C(s,Z31), etc. are transferfunctions whose characteristics depend on the respective programmedvalues Z11, Z21, Z31, etc. Transfer functions of the form (s+a)/(s+b)where b>>a have a transfer characteristic of a high pass filter.Transfer functions of the form (s+a)/(s+b) where b<<a have a transfercharacteristic of a low pass filter. Combining a plurality of thesetransfer functions as in (14) and (15) may produce a variety of highpass, low pass, bandpass, stopband, or other filter configurationsdepending on the programmed states Zij. For digital systems a similaranalysis in terms of the z-transform may be performed.

It is noted that, in addition to use in signal filters, operation ofcontrol systems used in robotic control, motor control, servo-regulationsystems, etc. may benefit from the programmable crossbar array transferfunction of the present invention. In so far as a particular controlsystem may need to be adjusted depending on a temperature sensor,pressure sensor, humidity sensor, visual sensors, audio sensors,vibration sensor, chemical sensors, etc. the programmed states Zij ofthe crossbar array may be reprogrammed, as described in the nextsection, depending on one or more of the above mentioned sensors.

VII. Reprogramming of Crossbar Signal Processor

Unless the programming voltage may be the same polarity as the inputvoltage (as in the programmable resistive material of Campbell et al.U.S. Pat. No. 6,867,996) the crossbar signal processor as described inthe previous sections only allows for a one time programming sincetypically a reversal of the material programming requires application ofa voltage or current of opposite polarity. For example, if theprogrammable material is a doped conductive polymer as described byNagasubramanian et al. U.S. Pat. No. 5,272,359, application of asufficient positive voltage decreases the materials resistance whileapplication of a sufficient negative voltage increases the resistance.However, the use of rectification layer 802 (FIG. 8 d) eliminates theability of applying a reversal voltage in the previous embodiment. Inaddition a variety of desirable programmable materials may be initiallyprogrammable by a negative polarity voltage or current instead of apositive voltage or current. It would be highly desirable to thewaveform generation, control systems, and digital filteringapplications, as well as in applications in communications and patternrecognition, for the crossbar values Zij to be reprogrammable so thatthe operation of these various devices may be selectively changed.

In order to provide reprogramming of the crossbar signal processor amodified embodiment of the crossbar signal processor of FIG. 1 may beprovided as shown in FIG. 11 a. Input Circuit A and Input Circuit B areidentical and are each formed with corresponding programming circuitry101 a, signal input circuitry 102 a, and selection circuitry 103 a, aspreviously described. Output Circuit A and Output Circuit B are alsoidentical and are each formed with corresponding programming circuitry101 b, signal output circuitry 102 b, and selection circuitry 103 b.Under normal operation, and in order to reduce interference between thecircuitry in groups A and B, when Input Circuit A and Output Circuit Aare operational, Input Circuit B and Output Circuit B may be set to anon-operational state by setting Input Circuit B and Output Circuit B tothe program state (selout=1, FIG. 3) and by setting the active(j) inputsto 0 (FIG. 4 b). When Input Circuit B and Output Circuit B are desiredto be operational, Input Circuit A and Output Circuit A may similarly beset to a non-operative state. Also each of the respective circuit groupsA and B may be provided with independent grounds.

The cross-sectional structure of the Programmable Crossbar Array of FIG.11 a is illustrated in FIG. 11 b. As shown, two symmetrical crossbarsections a,b are formed, each comprising corresponding insulatingsupport substrates 1101 a, 1101 b. first arrays of parallel conductivewires 1102 a, 1102 b, rectification layers 1103 a, 1103 b (shown as a pnjunction for exemplary purposes but with other rectification materialsor rectifying molecular junctions being equivalent), and second arraysof parallel conductive wires 1104 a, 1104 b formed perpendicularly towires 1102 a, 1102 b. The two sections a and b may be made integrallyvia micro or nanofabrication procedures or made separately and combinedso as to sandwich a programmable material layer or molecular film 1105.Layer 1105 should be formed so as to be sufficiently thin relative tothe wire interspacing distance so as to avoid leakage current betweenadjacent wires within layer 1104 a or layer 1104 b. To further avoidsuch leakage current, anisotropic material layers with high conductivityin the direction perpendicular to the plane formed by layer 1105 butwith low conductivity in the direction parallel to the plane formed bylayer 1105 may be added above and below layer 1105. Also, instead of acontinuous layer, layer 1105 may be segmented into electrically isolatedportions, each portion associated with one of the intersection point ofthe crossbars.

In order to achieve proper alignment in the case that the sections a andb are formed separately, material 1105 may be provided at an initiallylow resistance state and a potential difference may be applied betweenwires 1104 a and 1104 b. Using a piezoelectric or other ultrafinepositioning device the two sections a,b may be scanned relative to oneanother in a direction perpendicular to the orientation of wires 1104 aand 1104 b. The point of minimum resistance may be identified in thismanner and should correspond to closest contact between the wires. Atthis point the sections may be bonded together by conventionaltechniques. It is noted that for sufficiently high density wiring arraysthe effective region of the potential generated by individual wires maybe large enough to tolerate some misalignment. If it is the desire tosimply return material 1105 to its non-programmed state precisealignment may not be necessary. It is also conceivable simply to providecontinuous conductive surfaces instead of an array of wires for layers1102 a and 1104 b. While this would eliminate the ability for selectiveaddressing of individual crosspoints of the crossbar, if all that isdesired is simultaneous reversal of all of the programmed states (i.e.returning all Zij of the crossbar to a common state) individual wireswould not be necessary and the Input/Output Circuits B may be greatlysimplified.

Due to the rectification layers 1203 a, 1203 b the resulting structureallows current flow from wiring 1204 a to 1202 b only when wiring 1204 ais sufficiently positively biased with respect to wiring 1202 b andallows current flow from wiring 1204 b to 1202 a only when wiring 1204 bis sufficiently positively biased with respect to wiring 1202 a. Thusthe material/molecular film 1205 may be selectively programmed via thepaths from 1204 a to 1202 b by Input/Output Circuits A and selectivelydeprogrammed via the paths from 1204 b to 1202 a by Input/OutputCircuits B. It is emphasized that during programming or deprogrammingthe non-operational circuit combination should be set to a relativelyhigh resistance state to avoid current leakage from 1204 a to 1202 a orfrom 1204 b to 1202 b. The deprogramming may be accomplishedsimultaneously on all crosspoints of the crossbar array by setting allof the connections 1202 a to ground and setting all of the connections1204 b to a voltage high enough to reverse the programming state, thusclearing the previously programmed state. Alternatively, each crosspointmay be independently reprogrammed via the programming circuitry ofInput/Output Circuits B.

FIG. 12 a shows another embodiment of the crossbar signal processor inwhich the respective Input Circuits A and B are orthogonally oriented.

The cross-sectional structure of the Programmable Crossbar Array of FIG.12 a is illustrated in FIG. 12 b. As shown, two anti-symmetricalcrossbar sections a,b are formed each comprising correspondinginsulating support substrates 1201 a, 1201 b, first arrays of parallelconductive wires 1202 a, 1202 b, rectification layers 1203 a, 1203 b(shown as a pn junction for exemplary purposes but with otherrectification materials or rectifying molecular junctions beingequivalent), and second arrays of parallel conductive wires 1204 a, 1204b respectively formed parallel to wires 1202 a, 1202 b. The two sectionsa and b may be made integrally via micro or nanofabrication proceduresor made separately and combined so as to sandwich a programmablematerial or molecular film 1205. Layer 1205 should be formed so as to besufficiently thin relative to the wire interspacing distance so as toavoid leakage current between adjacent wires within layer 1204 a orlayer 1204 b. To further avoid such leakage current, anisotropicmaterial layers with high conductivity in the direction perpendicular tothe plane formed by layer 1205 but low conductivity in the directionparallel to the plane formed by layer 1205 may be added above and belowlayer 1205. Also, instead of a continuous layer, layer 1205 may besegmented into electrically isolated portions, each portion associatedwith one of the intersection point of the crossbars.

It is noted that Input/Output Circuits B have been taught to includeprogramming circuits 101 a/101 b, signal input/output circuits 102 a/102b and selection circuitry 103 a/103 b. It is conceivable to only provideprogramming circuits 101 a/101 b as Input/Output Circuits B when onlyreprogramming capability is desired. However, the advantage of having alarger number of possible input/output combinations per given circuitarea may favor inclusion of the signal input/output and selectioncircuitry in many cases.

It is noted that the structure of the crossbar arrays as shown in FIGS.12 a and 12 b may also be usefully applied to other applications thansignal processing. For example, memory storage applications using thecrossbar array structure of FIGS. 11 b and 12 b would allow forparallelism in reading and writing data to the crossbar array.

Thus given the above description, the crossbar signal processor providesa versatile reprogrammable instrument for waveform generation, controlsystems, and signal filtering. It is noted that it is even possible fora single crossbar signal processor to switch between one type of systemsuch as waveform generation and another type of system such as a signalfilter by reprogramming the crossbar Zij values and appropriatelyselecting the input signals. Fine control of the Zij values may alsocompensate for resistance variation caused by external environmentaleffects such as temperature. Thus reprogrammable crossbar signalprocessors are seen to have significant advantages over hardwiredsystems which are functionally limited by the specific circuitry used.

VIII. Signal Modulation Using Crossbar and Applications inCommunications

It was noted in the last section that interference generated bysimultaneous operation of both Input/Output Circuit group A andInput/Output Circuit group B may be avoided by setting thenon-operational group to a high impedance state. However, someadvantageous applications may be developed based on simultaneous signaltransmission.

FIG. 13 a shows the conventional current flow direction of the crossbarof FIG. 11 b from conductive wiring 1104 a to 1102 b for the case of allsignal inputs of Input/Output Circuit group B being set to a highimpedance state. However, when some of the inputs in Input/OutputCircuit group B are activated the direction of current flow isdetermined by the polarity of the voltage across the layer 1105 as shownin FIG. 13 b. FIG. 13 c shows an approximated schematic diagram of theoverall circuit configuration with Zina(i) and Zinb(i) representing theoverall input impedances for the ith column of the crossbar array,Zouta(j) representing the overall output impedances of the jth row, Zijrepresenting the programmed impedance state of the crossbar array at theintersection of the ith column and jth row, GNDA and GNDB representingindependent, physically isolated grounds, and raij and rbij representingthe states of the rectification layers at the ith column and jth row.When Zina(i)=Zinb(i) and Zouta(j)=Zoutb(j) the relative values ofVina(i) and Vinb(i) determine whether or not conduction occurs via oneof the rectification layers. In this case, when Vina(i) is sufficientlygreater than Vinb(i) current will flow across Zij from left to right andraij will be conducting while rbij is non-conducting. When Vinb(i) issufficiently greater than Vina(i) current will flow across Zij fromright to left and rbij will be conducting while raij is non-conducting.When Vinb(i) is close in value to Vina(i) both raij and rbij arenon-conducting. The following table summarizes the possible states.

TABLE 2 Raij rbij Vina(i) ≧ Vinb(i) + V_(T)ij Conducting non-conductingVinb(i) ≧ Vina(i) + V_(T)ij Non-conducting Conducting |Vina(i) −Vinb(i)| < V_(T)ij Non-conducting non-conducting

V_(T)ij represents a threshold voltage at which conduction from therectification layers starts to become significant and is determined byZij as well as the material properties and dimensions (dopingconcentration, thickness, etc.) of the rectification layers. It isconceivable to apply direct modulation of Zij using sufficiently largevoltage differentials. However, for purposes of the present embodiment,the magnitude of Vina(i)−Vinb(i) should be chosen so as not to result inalteration of the programmable material's impedance, Zij. In practice,the magnitude of Vina(i)−Vinb(i) may actually be larger than theprogramming voltages without causing a modification in Zij because theinput and output impedances Zin(i) and Zout(j), which attenuate thedifferential voltage Vina(i)−Vinb(i), are not present in the programmingcircuitry.

FIGS. 14-16 show examples of the use of the crossbar signal processor ofFIGS. 11 a and 11 b in signal modulation.

In FIG. 14, Vina(i) represents a carrier signal having a given magnitudewhile Vinb(i) represents a message signal with the same magnitude. GivenTable 2 the outputs Vouta(j) and Voutb(j) shown in FIG. 14 should begenerated based on the inputs. In this case the output waveforms may beexpressed symbolically asVouta(j)=Vina(i)*!(Vinb(i))   (Eq 17a)Voutb(j)=Vina(i)*Vinb(i)   (Eq 17b)where ! represents the logical NOT operation and * represents thelogical AND operation. Considering all of the inputs and outputs of thecrossbar array and the transfer characteristics of the crossbar array(Tij, Eq.10 and Eq.11), the output may be expressed in a moreanalytically useful form asVouta(j)=ΣTij[Vmaxa(i)−Vinb(i)]δ(Vina(i),Vinb(i)+V _(T) ij), thesummation performed for 1≦i≦16.   (Eq 18a)Voutb(j)=ΣTij[Vinb(i)−Vmina(i)]δ(Vinb(i),Vina(i)+V _(T) ij), thesummation performed for 1≦i≦16.   (Eq 18b)where Vmaxa(i) is the peak amplitude of Vinb(i), Vmina(i) is the minimumamplitude of Vina(i), and δ(x,y) is 0 if x≦y and 1 otherwise.

The output response of FIG. 14 demonstrates an example of pulse numbermodulation. The pulse widths input as signals Vinb(i) may be generatedbased on audio, video, data, or other signals and the output signals maybe transmitted by radio or other electromagnetic wave transmission,fiber optic transmission, or any other information transmissiontechnique. Taking the example of a 16×16 crossbar array, 16 differentmessage signals may be transmitted onto 16 different carrier waves usingthe crossbar signal processor. In another embodiment all 16 inputsVinb(i) of the crossbar array may be connected to a common messagesignal source and transmitted onto 16 different carrier waves.Alteration of the Tij values may be performed by reprogramming of theZij values thus enabling one to selectively switch which message signalis associated with which carrier signal for a particular output channel.FIG. 17 illustrates one implementation in which Tij is programmed suchthat for i=j the impedance value Zij is set to a relatively low valueand for i≠j Zij is set to a relatively high value. In the figure,Vina(i)=time dependent carrier signals c(i,t), Vinb(i)=time dependentmessage signals m(i,t), and the peak values of the message and carriersignals is normalized to one (Vmaxa(i)=1). For a particular crossbarsignal processor implementation the impedances Zout(j) may be chosensuch that Zout(j)=Zin′(i)+Zcj, and inverting circuitry may be added onall of the outputs which reduces Eq. 10 toT(i,j)=1/[1+Zij/(Zin′(i)+Zcj)].   (Eq 19)Thus for Zij<<Zin′(i)+Zcj, T(i,j) approaches a value of 1 and forZij>>Zin′(i)+Zcj, T(i,j) approaches a value of zero. It is noted that,given a particular programmable material with a range of impedances,Zin′(i)+Zcj may optimally be set at the median value of the programmablematerials range of values.

FIG. 15 is similar to that of FIG. 14 except that the message signal hasa variation in amplitude instead of pulse width. This may be used so asto generate amplitude modulation. As in the previous case, the messagesignals m(i,t) may be generated based on audio, video, data, or othersignals and the output signals may be transmitted by radio or otherelectromagnetic wave transmission, fiber optic transmission, or anyother transmission technique.

FIG. 16 displays the waveforms used in a frequency modulation techniquewith the crossbar signal processor setup as shown in FIG. 17. Signalsc(1,t) and c(2,t) are carrier signals fixed at two differentfrequencies. The message signals m(1,t) and m(2,t) are mutuallyexclusive signals with m(2,t) being off when m(1,t) is on. The pulsewidths of m(1,t) and m(2,t) determines which of the carrier signals(i.e. which frequency) is transmitted at any given time. As in theprevious cases, the message signals m(i,t) may be generated based onaudio, video, data, or other signals and the output signals may betransmitted by radio or other electromagnetic wave transmission, fiberoptic transmission, or any other transmission technique.

An extension of the principles of FIG. 16 and FIG. 17 provides forfrequency hopping. The values of Zij may be changed by reprogramming theZij value so that instead of T(1,1), T(1,2), T(2,1), T(2,2)=1 and allother T(i,j)=0, as shown in FIG. 18, T(3,1), T(3,2), T(4,1), T(4,2)=1and all other T(i,j)=0. This would shift the message signals to adifferent frequency band which is useful in cases where interference orbad transmission is detected from the currently used band.

While the above discussion concerns the crossbar signal processor usedin modulation techniques it is noted that demodulation may similarly beachieved with respect to a selected carrier frequency by examining thecurrent passing through Zij. When Vina(i) is a particular modulatedsignal and Vinb(i) is a selected carrier frequency phase matched to themodulated signal no current will flow through Zij when the modulatedsignal matches the carrier frequency (provided Zina(i)=Zinb(i), see FIG.13 c). For demodulation applications a detection circuit may be added tothe crossbar signal processor to detect when the current across Zij iszero and thus enable reconstruction of the message signal.

The above discussion focuses on communication applications using theembodiment of FIGS. 11 a and 11 b. However, the embodiment of FIGS. 12 aand 12 b may similarly be used. In this case the outputs may beexpressed as:Vouta(i)=ΣTij[Vmaxa(i)−Vinb(j)]δ(Vina(i),Vinb(j)+V _(T) ij), thesummation performed for 1≦j≦16.   (Eq 20a)Voutb(j)=ΣTij[Vinb(j)−Vmina(i)]δ(Vinb(j),Vina(i)+V _(T) ij), thesummation performed for 1≦i≦16.   (Eq 20b)where Vmaxa(i) is the peak amplitude of Vina(i), Vmina(i) is the minimumamplitude of Vina(i), and δ(x,y) is 0 if x≦y and 1 otherwise. FIG. 19shows an implementation of a crossbar signal processor of this type inwhich Vmaxa(i)=1, Vmina(i)=0, Vina(i)=c(i,t), and Vinb(j)=m(t,j). Thisimplementation may be used for providing a common message signal to aplurality of different carriers or for frequency hopping a singlemessage signal among a plurality of carrier signals. One particularapplication of frequency hopping is to provide a secure communicationchannel wherein a first user transmitting a signal and a second userreceiving the signal share a common key that corresponds to the order ofcarrier signals to which the message signal is switched. Anotherapplication is to prevent jamming or interference by detecting whichfrequencies are transmittable and which are non-transmittable at anygiven time and selecting the carrier frequency based on such detection.

Thus given the above description, the crossbar signal processor providesa versatile tool for communication. It is noted that it is possible fora single crossbar signal processor to switch between differentmodulation or demodulation schemes by reprogramming the crossbar Zijvalues and appropriately selecting the input signals. Fine control ofthe Zij values may also compensate for resistance variation caused byexternal environmental effects such as temperature. These advantages areseen to provide significant improvements over hardwired communicationsystems which are functionally limited by the specific circuitry used.

IX. Applications in Pattern Recognition, Pattern Location, and PatternComparison

In the previous sections the input signals to the crossbar array weregenerally in the form of waveforms or pulses, however applications existin which the input signals may be in the form of rasterized digitalinformation such as a two dimensional bit pattern. As described below acrossbar signal processor may be advantageously applied in patternrecognition using such input data.

Supposing one wanted to compare two sets of digital data Aij and Bijeach consisting of blocks of binary data. Since the blocks of data arein binary form, then the XNOR logic operation A*B+!A*!B (!=NOT, *=AND,+=OR) may be used on each bit position and summed producing the valueX=Σ[Aij*Bij+!Aij*!Bij] the sum performed over all i and j. For perfectmatching the sum should equal the total number of bits in the data set.For an N×M block of bits this value is the product of N times M. Thus anormalized correlation can be expressed asX=Σ[Aij*Bij+!Aij*!Bij]/(NM) the sum performed from 1≦i≦N and 1≦j≦M.  (Eq 21)where X=1 corresponds to perfect correlation and X=0 corresponds toperfect anti-correlation (this would actually be indicative of Bij=!Aijmeaning Bij is a negative of Aij). A value of X=½ would be expected forno correlation when the probability of any particular bit value beingone is equal to the probability that the bit value is zero (i.e. perfectentropy).

If the data block sizes are 1000×1000 and a single XNOR operationcounted as a single step it would take 1,000,000 steps to compute X.However, if an entire row (1≦j≦M) or column (1≦i≦N) could be summed in asingle process step it would greatly reduce the number of computationsnecessary to find X. Using the signal processing crossbar array of thepresent invention provides a mechanism for such computation reduction.

FIG. 20 illustrates digital data Aij received from a source 2000 whichmay be a data buffer, an imaging sensor such as a CCD or CMOS sensingarray, or any other data source containing patterns that are desired tobe analyzed. The digital data Aij is represented in FIG. 20 as a patternin an “H” shape. Using a general purpose microprocessor the digital dataAij may be used to generate three additional blocks of digital data:!(Aij), Aji, and !(Aji) as shown in FIG. 20. Alternatively preprocessingcircuitry, such as an inverter array, may be added to the input unit ofcrossbar processors to generate !Aij and an additional crossbar arrayand latching circuitry may be added to the input of a crossbar processorso as to rotate input Aij and generate Aji. Each of the four data blocksmay be programmed into separate crossbar signal processors with Zij=lowvalue corresponding to Tij=1 and Zij=high value corresponding to Tij=0(see Eq 10 and/or Eq 19).

FIG. 21 illustrates digital data Bij received from source 2100 at alater time. Source 2100 may be a data buffer, an imaging sensor such asa CCD or CMOS imaging array, or any other data source containingpatterns that are desired to be analyzed. In some embodiments source2100 may be the same as source 2000. In the current example, Bij is thesame as Aij except that the right half side of data Bij is corrupted sothat a probability p exists of a given bit being 1 and !p represents aprobability of a given bit being zero (!p=1−p). As in the case of Aij,Bij may be used to generate three additional blocks of digital data:!(Bij), Bji, and !(Bji). Each of the four data blocks Bij, !(Bij), Bji,and !(Bji) may then be input one row at a time to corresponding crossbararrays programmed with the data Aij, !(Aij), Aji, and !(Aji). As thefirst row of each data block (for example Bij) is input thecorresponding output row of the crossbar array processor may beexamined. At points in which there is a match between a particular inputvalue (for example B₁₁ corresponding to a high voltage input, i.e.B₁₁=1) and the corresponding programmed value (A₁₁ corresponding to aprogrammed low resistance state A₁₁=1) current will be transmitted alongthe top row conduction path. If a particular input value is a lowvoltage input (B₂₁=0) and the corresponding programmed value is a highresistance state (A₂₁=0) current will not be transmitted along the toprow conduction path. If the programmed state and the corresponding inputstate are different there will also be little current flow. TABLE 3summarizes these conditions:

TABLE 3 Aij Bij Output 0 = High resistance state (i.e. 0 = (Low voltageinput) 0 = No current Zij = HIGH, Tij = LOW) 0 = High resistance state(i.e. 1 = (High voltage input) 0 = very Zij = HIGH, Tij = LOW) littlecurrent 1 = Low resistance state (i.e. 0 = (Low voltage input) 0 = veryZij = LOW, Tij = HIGH) little current 1 = Low resistance state (i.e. 1 =(High voltage input) 1 = current Zij = LOW, Tij = HIGH)

Since each row conductor output of the crossbar array is connected to anoperational amplifier, each row output from the op amp will be an analogsum of the input voltages that pass through the crossbar array. TakingFIG. 22 a as an example, the output for the first row of input data Bijprocessed by the first row of stored data Aij is 1+p because only eitherend of the programmed pattern Aij is at a low resistance state and theupper left most value of Bij is 1 while the upper right most value is 1with a probability p. The output value from the first row may be sent toan analog to digital converter and then stored in a data register orstored in analog form via a capacitor or other analog storage mechanism.Inputting the second row of Bij into the programmed crossbar arrayproduces a second analog output at the second row output which may alsobe stored in a data register after A/D conversion or via an analogstorage method. This process may be repeated for as many rows of datathat there are to be analyzed with the total number of process stepsequaling the number of rows. It is noted that as each row is processedthe other rows are in the non-conducting by setting the appropriatevalues to actives(j) (see FIG. 7 d) via a shift register or the likeshifting a single bit to sequentially actuate the outputs in asimultaneously timed relationship to the input of each row of data blockBij.

Using four different crossbar array processors the four input datablocks Bij, !Bij, Bji, !Bji may be simultaneously processed as indicatedin FIG. 22 a-22 d. However, if it is desired to minimize the number ofcircuit components a single crossbar array processor may be used andrepeatedly reprogrammed with the data blocks Aij, !Aij, Aji, !Aji at thecost of reduced processing speed (effectively reducing the number ofrequired circuit components by four but increasing the processing timeby four as well).

As indicated in FIG. 22 e, the analog output values or analog todigitally converted values obtained from the first crossbar processorrepresenting ΣAijBij summed over i may be added to those obtained fromΣ!Aij!Bij summed over i thus producing a XNOR operation for each rowDj=Σ[AijBij+!Aij!Bij]. The resultant Dj is representative of a vectorindicating the degree of correlation in the vertical (j) directionbetween the input data (Bij) and the stored data (Aij). One maynormalize Dj by dividing Dj by the number of rows M or by dividing bythe largest individual value in the vector. As the current exampleindicated the error is evenly distributed along the j-axis when theprobability p=0.5 (maximum entropy) which is in accordance with theintuitively expected result. Ci may be obtained similarly asCi=Σ[AjiBji+!Aji!Bji] by adding the analog, or analog to digitallyconverted, outputs from the third and fourth crossbars. Ci isrepresentative of a vector indicating the degree of correlation in thehorizontal (i) direction between the input data (Bij) and the storeddata (Aij). As the current example indicates the normalization of Ciwhen p=0.5 produces the intuitive result that the right side of theinput data pattern (Bij) is anomalous while the left side matches thestored data pattern. The total amount of processing steps for thiscomparison when four different crossbar processors of size 1000×1000 areused would equal 1000 steps (one each for comparing each input data rowand storing the corresponding analog or A/D converted output row) plus 1step (for adding the stored resultants of the first and second crossbarprocessors to produce Dj and adding the stored resultants of the thirdand fourth crossbar processors to produce Ci). Using a 1 MHz processor1000 images consisting of 1000 by 1000 bit patterns may be compared to areference pattern in approximately 1 second. Using a 1 GHz processor1,000,000 images consisting of 1000 by 1000 bit patterns may be comparedto a reference pattern in 1 second. Thus this is seen to significantlyimprove the speed of pattern recognition and pattern comparison overmore conventional techniques employing individual logic gates.

Some limitations of the above approach are noted, however. For a1000×1000 crossbar array that has a particular row with all the Zijvalues programmed at a low resistance state and an input of all highvoltages the output produced would maximally be 1000 times the highinput voltage. If 100 mV were used as the HIGH input value the outputwould on the order of 100V provided there was matching between the inputand output impedances (Zin(i)=Zout(j)). Thus increasing the total numberof columns in the crossbar array may require use of output circuitrycapable of dealing with higher voltages. Also, as with all electronicdevices which may produce large currents during certain periods,adequate cooling and temperature regulation is a concern. One ofordinary skill in the art would recognize the variety of thermalcompensation solutions available from conventional electronics such asheat sinks, etc. It would also be recognized by a person of ordinaryskill that conventional software based techniques of pattern recognitionand comparison including various filtering, preprocessing andpost-processing techniques may be combined with the crossbar processorof the present invention.

FIG. 23 a-23 e illustrates a second pattern processing methodology usingthe crossbar signal processor. Instead of performing pattern comparisonthe crossbar processor of the present invention may be used for patternlocation and tracking. A first set of patterns Aij, !Aij, Aji, and !Ajiis stored in the crossbar array as in the previous example andcorresponding input patterns Bij, !Bij, Bji, !Bji are later detected bya CCD array or received from a pattern buffer. The input patterns areprocessed by the respective stored patterns producing analog, or A/Dconverted, output vectors as in the last example except this time theoutput vectors Σ!Aij!Bij and Σ!Aji!Bji are complemented to form thevectors M-Σ!Aij!Bij and N-Σ!Aji!Bji, where N is the number of columnsand M is the number of rows in a particular crossbar. This is done so asto reverse the dark background values caused by the !Aij=1 values. Inthe case where the stored data patterns Aij and Aji are detected to havea dark background, !Aij and !Aji would have a light background, and thiscomplementing step may be performed for the outputs produced from Aijand Aji instead.

Horizontal and vertical correlation vectors, Ci and Dj, are obtained asindicated in FIG. 23 e. These vectors may be independently assessed orused to generate a normalized outer product DjCi/4NM that indicates thedislocation of the input image pattern Bij from the stored image patternAij. This dislocation may be used to reposition or refocus a CCD or CMOScamera or other imaging device that is the source of the data patterns.Repeating this process once every predetermined time period enablesobject tracking. Depending on the magnitude of the dislocation detectedthe predetermined time period may be readjusted to compensate for thetracked objects relative speed. For example, a relatively fast movingobject may require a time difference between original image capture andcorrelation with the next image to be performed once every millisecondwhile a relatively slow moving object may require a time differencebetween an image capture and correlation once every tenth of a second.Detection of changing speed may be used to dynamically adjust the timedifference while tracking. This may be useful in a wide variety ofapplications such as position tracking in an optical computer mouse,tracking a projectile or a missile, adjusting a lithographic mask, andin machine vision.

FIG. 24 displays another example of the use of a crossbar signalprocessor in pattern matching. Instead of a single pattern beingprogrammed into the crossbar processors, Aij may contain multipledifferent reference patterns. A single unknown pattern may be duplicatedin an array and input to the crossbar processor to create input patternBij. Using the techniques of FIGS. 22 a-e the location of the closestmatch will correspond to the range of maximum values within thehorizontal and vertical correlation vectors Ci and Dj.

It would be recognized by a person of ordinary skill that conventionalsoftware based techniques of pattern recognition, pattern tracking, andpattern comparison including various filtering, preprocessing andpost-processing techniques may be combined with the crossbar processorof the present invention.

X. Interfacing Molecular Crossbars with Solid State Electronics

For the case of a crossbar employing conductive wires with diameters inthe 100 nanometer-100 micrometer range, connection with the input andoutput circuitry may be obtained through conventional microlithographytechniques. For wires with larger diameters, solder connections may beformed. However, for wires with diameters less than 100 nm, such as inthe molecular nanowire crossbar structures noted in the Background ofthe Invention, special consideration in how to interface conventionalelectronics with the crossbar wiring may be necessary.

Scanning probe microscopes including atomic force microscopes (AFMs) andscanning tunneling microscopes (STMs) are one possible mechanism forachieving such interfacing. AFMs can include an ultrasharp conductivetip capable of conventional current conduction and STMs include a tipcapable of tunneling current conduction. Setting the scanning probe tipto a desired potential via control electronics and positioning the tipinto contact with a nanowire may allow for a signal transmission fromthe control electronics to the nanowire crossbar.

FIG. 25 a illustrates an array of scanning probes formed over the inputand output edges of a nanowire crossbar array 2510. Each scanning probetip may be integrally formed on a respective cantilever 2550 with apositioning control mechanism such as a piezoelectric or electrostaticactuator 2560 using microelectromechanical fabrication techniques.Shinjo et al. U.S. Pat. No. 5,412,641 provides one example of anintegrally formed scanning probe array. The substrate out of which thescanning probes are formed may be positioned parallel to the surface ofthe crossbar array. As shown in FIG. 25 a, only two edges of thecrossbar array are surrounded by scanning probes, however all four edgesmay be provided with scanning probe tips if configurations analogous tothat of FIG. 11 a or 12 a are desired.

Input circuit 2501 a provides the programming input, signal input, andinput selection circuitry while output circuit 2501 b provides theprogramming output, signal output, and output selection circuitry.Scanning Probe Array Controllers 2502 a and 2502 b generate the voltagecontrol for the scanning probe tips as well as positioning signals tocontrol the positioning mechanisms 2560. If AFMs are used, opticalsensing of the cantilever position maybe used for feedback positioningregulation as well known in the art of scanning probe microscopy.

As indicated in FIG. 25 b, each scanning probe tip 2580 may correspondto a plurality of nanowires 2590. For example, with a spacing of 100microns between tips, a range of movement of 10 microns per tip, ananowire diameter of 10 nm, and a spacing of 10 nm between each wire,500 nanowires may be addressed per tip. Providing a tip radius thatencompasses many nanowires may be useful in order to provide redundancyfor poorly conducting or broken nanowires. A 100 nm tip diameter mayconcurrently contact 5 nanowires at a time as the tip 2580 is scanned inthe x direction. In this case the addressable area for a particularinput scanning probe/output scanning probe pairing may produce100×100=10,000 programmable regions with each addressable area including5×5=25 crosspoints between the overlapping 5 nanowire input/5 nanowireoutput combination. To compensate for increased parasitic resistance forlonger wire paths from the input to the output, a series of amplifiers2570 may be used to boost the input drive voltages Vp by an amount “a”corresponding to the expected voltage drop between consecutive scanningprobe tips.

The configuration of FIGS. 25 a and 25 b provides for nanowireaddressing of only a fraction of the crossbar interconnects. Forexample, if a 10×10 scanning probe input/output array is provided, andgiven the parameters of the example from the preceding paragraph,100×10,000=1,000,000 programmable regions are possible. However, for a1000 micron×1000 micron area, corresponding to an area covered by the10×10 scanning probe array with a 100 micron interspacing, 10¹⁰intersection points of the nanowires may be achieved with 10¹⁰/25programmable regions. The deficiency between the maximum number ofprogrammable regions and the value obtained in the current example maybe reduced by increasing the scanning range of the scanning probes. Toincrease the maximum allowable scanning range of each individualscanning probe tip the cantilever 2550 from which the tips 2580 areformed may be arranged perpendicular to the associated edge of thecrossbar array rather than parallel to the associated edge.

During programming of the nanowire crossbar array the output array ofscanning probe tips should be held in a fixed position in contact with afirst set of output nanowires with the tip voltages set to ground. Theinput array of scanning probe tips may then be continuously scanned inthe x-direction to sequentially address the nanowires that are incontact with the tip at any given time. Coordinated control of thevoltage of the tip with the scanning speed will determine the amount ofimpedance change in the programmable material. This may be used tosupplement or replace the pulse width modulation of the programmingcircuit that was used in programming individual impedances in previousembodiments. Once one line of programming is performed the outputscanning probes may be incremented in the y-direction while the inputscanning probes are returned to the origin for a second scan.Alternatively, bi-directional programming scans may be employed with thedirection of data input being switched when programming alternate rows.Repeatedly scanning the input scanning probes in the x-directionfollowed by incrementing the position of the output scanning probes inthe y-direction results in programming all accessible programmingregions.

FIG. 26 a illustrates an alternative embodiment in which, instead ofseparate positioning mechanisms 2560 and cantilevers 2550, a commonsupport 2650 is provided for the tips 2580. The support 2650 may berepositioned via a common XY positioning mechanism. This allows forcloser spacing between adjacent tips. Minimal spacing may be achievableusing high aspect ratio tips such as carbon nanotubes which have beenformed in vertical arrays with interspacings on the order of 10 s ofnanometers between nanotubes.

Incidentally, the scanning probe interconnection system may also beusefully applied to interconnect crossbar nanowire memory systems, orother nanowire crossbar systems other than used in signal processing, tosolid state control circuitry.

XI. Modifications/Alternatives

Many modifications and alternatives to the current invention may ofcourse be implemented and a person of ordinary skill in a variety oftechnical arts such as waveform generation, signal analysis, controlsystems, communication systems, pattern recognition systems, artificialintelligence, scanning probe microscopy, and programmable materialswould clearly see many obvious variants to the teachings containedherein. For example, while crossbar arrays have typically been formedfrom two sets of wires that are orthogonal to each other they may alsobe formed from intersecting wires formed at a non-orthogonal angle suchas 80 degrees, 60 degrees, 45 degrees, 30 degrees, etc. While exampleswere given of a 16×16 crossbar array for some embodiments of the currentinvention other configurations such as a 2×2 crossbar array, 1×1028crossbar array, 1028×1 crossbar array, 1028×1028 crossbar array, or anyvalue in between is conceivable.

As noted in the Background of the Invention a variety of candidatesexist for the programmable material of the crossbar array includingconducting polymers, organic semiconductors, perovskite materials,silver-selenide/chalcogenide laminate films, as well as molecularcomponents such as rotaxane used in nanowire crossbars. In addition avariety of materials with voltage controlled resistive and/or capacitiveproperties exist that have not yet been used in crossbar arrays. Forexample, Nugent U.S. Pat. No. 6,995,649 discloses using voltagecontrolled orientation of high aspect ratio nanoparticles as a means ofvariable resistance control. Any known material with a voltage orcurrent controlled resistance or/and reactance may potentially beemployed in a useful fashion within the framework of the currentinvention.

When a particular programmable material/molecule has a conductive statethat is still a relatively high impedance low currents will be produced.This may help reduce problems generated by undesired current-inducedheating. However, if the current produced is so low that it approachesthe level of anomalous currents produced by noise or thermal currents,proper operation will be impeded. To address these problems noisefilters may be added to the input and output circuitry and/or coolingmay be provided to reduce thermal current.

The rectification layers shown in FIGS. 8 d, 11 b, and 12 b are formedas continuous layers. However, some leakage current may be presentdepending on the interspacing of the wires, the thickness of therectification layer, and the relative surface resistance of therectification layer and the wire resistances. To avoid this problem therectification layer may be segmented into a different portion for eachcrossbar interconnection point with insulating material provided orempty spaces etched between the different rectifying segments. FIGS. 27a and 27 b illustrate cross-sections along the y-axis and x-axis as anexample of this construction.

While the present invention was described and various equations weregiven in terms of programmed impedance or resistance values, anequivalent description may be provided in terms of admittance Yij=1/Zijor conductance Gij=1/Rij.

As described above many modifications of the present invention arepossible and many applications within the realms of signal processing,control systems, communication, and pattern recognition are foreseeable.However, the present invention is only limited by the following claims.

1. A device comprising: a nanowire crossbar array including aprogrammable material layer; at least one of input or output circuitry;and at least one array of input or output probe tips to provide anelectrical connection between the nanowire crossbar array and the inputor output circuitry, wherein the input or output tips are able to bescanned so as to provide movement of the tips relative to the nanowirecrossbar array.
 2. The device of claim 1 wherein the tips are conductivetips of an array of atomic force microscopes.
 3. The device of claim 1wherein the tips are tips of an array of scanning tunneling microscopes.4. The device of claim 1 wherein each of the tips are integrally formedon a respective cantilever.
 5. The device of claim 4 wherein apositioning control mechanism is provided for each of the respectivecantilevers.
 6. The device of claim 1 wherein each tip corresponds to aplurality of nanowires of the nanowire crossbar array.
 7. The device ofclaim 1 wherein the tips are provided on a common support.
 8. The deviceof claim 7 including a positioning mechanism for the common support. 9.The device of claim 1 wherein different voltages are provided toadjacent tips in the at least one array of input or output tips.
 10. Adevice comprising: a nanowire crossbar array including a programmablematerial layer; input circuitry; output circuitry; an array of inputprobe tips providing an electrical connection between the inputcircuitry and a first edge of the nanowire crossbar array; and an arrayof output probe tips providing an electrical connection between theoutput circuitry and a second edge of the nanowire crossbar array,wherein the input or output tips are able to be scanned so as to providemovement of the tips relative to the nanowire crossbar array.
 11. Thedevice of claim 10 wherein the input and output tips are conductive tipsof arrays of atomic force microscopes.
 12. The device of claim 10wherein the input and output tips are tips of arrays of scanningtunneling microscopes.
 13. The device of claim 10 wherein each of thetips in the arrays are integrally formed on a respective cantilever. 14.The device of claim 13 wherein a positioning control mechanism isprovided for each of the respective cantilevers.
 15. The device of claim10 wherein each tip in the arrays corresponds to a plurality ofnanowires of the nanowire crossbar array.
 16. The device of claim 10wherein the tips of the arrays are provided on a common support.
 17. Thedevice of claim 16 including a positioning mechanism for the commonsupport.
 18. The device of claim 10 wherein different voltages areprovided to adjacent tips in one of the arrays of input and output tips.19. A device comprising: a nanowire crossbar array including aprogrammable material layer; at least one of input or output circuitry;and at least one array of input or output tips to provide an electricalconnection between the nanowire crossbar array and the input or outputcircuitry, wherein the input or output tips are formed as part of eitheratomic force microscopes or scanning tunneling microscopes so as toposition the tips relative to the nanowire crossbar array.